Continued education and learning are the keys to taking control of your health and wellness, and achieving the results you desire. As the leading provider of in-depth and comprehensive training, nutrition and fitness information in the country, Fitness magazine has provided you with a complete A to Z guide of terms and words you need to know as an individual dedicated and committed to health and fitness.

Amino Acids: A group of 20 different kinds of small molecules that link together in long chains to form proteins, often referred to as “building blocks”. The sequence of amino acids determines the structure and function of the protein. They also have a role to play in metabolism and are therefore critical to sustaining life. There are eight amino acids regarded as essential to humans, which cannot be synthesized by the human body, and therefore need to be supplied through the diet. Sources of essential amino acids include meat (beef, chicken, turkey), fish, whole grains, nuts and seeds (almonds, peanuts, sesame seeds), beans (green beans, soy beans, lentils, lima beans), dairy (milk, cottage cheese, chocolate) oats, wheat, fruit (bananas, dried dates, avocados) and vegetables (spinach, mushrooms).

Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR): The rate at which the body burns calories when at rest in a neutrally temperate environment, in the post-absorptive state (meaning that the digestive system is inactive, which requires about twelve hours of fasting in humans). The release of energy in this state is sufficient only for the functioning of the vital organs, the nervous and muscular-skeletal system and the skin.

Calorie: In technical terms a calorie is a unit of heat equal to the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one kilogram of water by one degree at one atmosphere. More commonly it is used to define the amount of energy a certain food source supplies, referred to as a food calorie and is equal to 1 kilocalorie (kcal), or 1,000 gram calories.

Delayed onset of muscle soreness, (DOMS): Refers to discomfort often felt 24 to 72 hours after exercising, which usually subsides within two to three days. The discomfort is caused by tiny tears in the muscle fibres and/or by training at a higher intensity or volume than usual. It was commonly thought to be caused by increased lactate concentrations, however this concept has been disproved as research shows elevated levels of lactic acid rarely persist after an hour of rest. DOMS is more commonly thought to be caused by the muscle trauma caused during high intensity training or weight lifting.

Essential Fatty Acids (EFAs): Fatty acids that can’t be synthesized by the body and therefore are required to be supplied in the diet are called Essential Fatty Acids. They are “essential” for the body to function and are obtainable from food sources such as fish, flaxseed oil and safflower oil.

Fructose: A simple carbohydrate (monosaccharide) that is a structural isomer of glucose and considered to be an atypical ketose. It is often used as a sugar substitute for diabetics, because of its low glycemic index. It is a healthier option than normal sugar, as fructose comes from fruit.

Glycogen: The principle form of carbohydrate energy (glucose) stored within the body’s muscles and liver.

Hormones: Hormones are proteins that act as chemical messengers, traveling to one or more specific target tissues or organs to fulfill very important regulatory functions in biological processes, enabled by control of enzymes action. Insulin, for example, plays a very important role in regulating the amount of glucose in the bloodstream, or oestrogen, which is secreted by the ovaries, is responsible for developing female sexual characteristics and regulating various internal reproductive processes.

Interval training: A cardiovascular training session that involves repeated bouts of exercise, separated by rest intervals. Depending on the length of exercise and rest periods, interval training may be anaerobic or aerobic. An example session might involve running three separate runs of one mile each, with each mile being followed by a recovery period of three minutes – where you might walk, jog or completely rest. Used for improving cardiovascular fitness and speed

Joint Kinesthetic Receptor: A receptor that provides information on joint position and motion that assists the brain in establishing where the limbs are in space, through a process called proprioception. This is what allows you to walk, pick up items and complete simple daily movements.

Kinesiology: The scientific study of human movement.

Lactic Acid: A by-product of training and exercise caused by anaerobic training of the muscles, the build up of which prevents the continuation of exercise.

Metabolism: The sum total of all the chemical reactions occurring in the body’s cells. The metabolism is responsible for the breakdown of stored food energy into forms that can be used by the body.

Negative-resistance training: Resistance training in which the muscles lengthen while still under tension. Lowering a barbell, bending down and running downhill are all examples of negative-resistance training. This type of training can help develop muscles more quickly than other types of training.

Overtraining: Excessive volume, intensity, or both volume and intensity of training, resulting in fatigue, illness, injury and/or impaired performance. This can be alleviated by reducing the amount of training that you do, training at a less intense level, and/or getting some rest.

Progressive Resistance: A method of training where weight is increased as muscles gain strength and endurance. This increase can take place over a programme period of 6 to 8 weeks, or during specific sets in a exercise programme where the trainee aims to fatigue the muscle group.

Quads: Abbreviation for quadriceps femoris (Latin for ‘four-headed’ muscle of the femur), the muscles on top of the legs located in the thigh region. It is the main extensor muscle of the knee and is the strongest and leanest muscle in the human body.

Repetition (reps): One complete movement of an exercise.
1. For resistance training: One complete movement of an exercise from start to finish. For example lowering the bar on a bench press from full extension to the chest, and then raising it back up to full extension.
2. For cardiovascular training: The duration of each effort. For example there are six repetitions in a session comprising 6 x ‘800 metres with 60 second recoveries’.

Supination: This refers to the action of the foot during running, and describes an outward-rolling action between the heel striking the floor and the toe leaving the ground. Much less common than pronation, excessive supination can result in injury but can be helped by an appropriate choice of training shoes and/or corrective insoles.

Taper: A period of time within a training programme where the athlete reduces the volume and intensity of her training in readiness for a targeted event or rest cycle. This method allows the body and mind to recover from training so that a maximal performance can be achieved during competition or extended periods of training.

Ultrasound: Non-invasive therapeutic treatment for soft tissue injuries.

VO2 MAX: The maximum amount of oxygen a person can utilise per minute of work. Also known as maximal oxygen consumption, maximal oxygen uptake or aerobic capacity. VO2max is widely accepted as the single best measure of cardiovascular fitness and maximal aerobic power. The average young untrained female will score a VO2 max of approximately 2.0 litres/minute and 38 ml/kg/min. Very few elite female athletes exceed 70 ml/kg/min.

Wobble board: A circular wooden disc – approximately 45cm in diameter – with a hemisphere on one side. It is used for stability training, core exercises and strengthening the ankle and/or rehabilitation from ankle injuries.

X-training: Colloquial term for cross-training, which refers to training in different ways to improve overall performance. It takes advantage of the particular effectiveness of each training method, while at the same time attempting to neglect the shortcomings of that method by combining it with other methods that address its weaknesses.

Yoga: An exercise system that integrates the mind and body by focusing on controlled breathing, flexibility and posture.

Zatopek phenomenon: A term for the beneficial effects associated with tapering, named after Czech middle distance Olympic champion Emil Zatopek. His intense training prior to the 1950 European Games was interrupted by illness that hospitalised him for two weeks. He came out of hospital just two days before competing in the 10 000m race, which he won convincingly. He also went on to win the 5000m event. His success has been attributed to the benefits of his forced tapering.

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What is it, how does it develop and what your hormone levels have to do with it? Fitness Mag delves into the latest finding of what works, what we “think” works and how to prevent it.

Cellulite is one of the ‘dirty’ words in the health, fitness and beauty industries. Nobody wants it, nobody talks about it and those that do suffer from it are infuriated that not everyone has the same problem. Why does it appear on some women more than others and why do some men get it? Nobody likes to talk about it, because nobody really knows what it is and how it is formed. This is due to the research, until very recently, being vague on what cellulite actually is and the research is just as unclear on what causes it, but finally the latest studies show us what is really going on and what we can do about it.

Cellulite History

The first reference to cellulite was back in 1978 by Scherwitz and Braun-Falco. However, their initial examination of cadavers contained some (now known) errors on the anatomy of cellulite, but given the lack of peer research at the time, they didn’t have a lot to go on.

In regards to errors in research, their early cadaver studies found that skin dimpling was characteristic of women, and they did not conclude that it was caused by cellulite. They also concluded that men did not get cellulite as the subcutaneous layer of skin is thinner and has a crisscrossing pattern of septae that divide the fat chamber into smaller polygonal units. However, one good piece of information they mentioned was that they found the pinch test is only positive in androgen deficient men. This is a good indicator about what triggers cellulite (hormones), although this was completely overlooked by them and other researchers, until recently.

In 1986, Markman and Barton corrected many of the errors mentioned by Scherwitz and Braun-Falco and took a step nearer the truth by concluding: cellulite occurs when the deeper layer of the dermis breaks down and the fat is allowed to bulge towards the superficial layer of the skin, causing a dimpling effect.

A little more evidence was uncovered in 1991, by Lockwood when his cadaver and body-contour analysis defined two types of cellulite – primary and secondary cellulite. Primary cellulite is characterised by larger or hypertrophied superficial fat cells. Secondary cellulite is a result of ’sloppiness’ in the skin possibly caused by sun damage, aging or severe weight loss. Similar to Markman and Barton, Lockwood believed the skin layers themselves lost adhesion and failed to keep fat cells from protruding into the dermis. Lockwood therefore concluded that it was more the superficial layer of the skin that broke down, allowing fat to protrude and cause the undulations that characterise cellulite, rather than the deeper dermal layer as concluded by Markman and Barton. These two theories are very close to the truth, as it is very specific parts of the dermis that do break down to cause cellulite dimpling, which is exacerbated by the concurrent hypertrophy of the fat cells. Lockwood’s model was the best interpretation available, until very recently, but now new research offers a fresh look at cellulite.

The latest Cellulite Research

Cellulite, sometimes called “gynoid lipodystrophy” is believed to result when subcutaneous adipose tissue protrudes into the lower reticular dermis, thereby creating irregularities at the surface. The irregular, orange peel type dimpled skin surface is characteristic of cellulite and is reported to appear in the thighs, abdomen, and buttocks of 85% of post-adolescent women. Please note that cellulite is unrelated to the condition cellulitis, which is infection of the skin and its underlying connective tissue.

Only two researchers have recently detected the true main culprit for cellulite production – Peter Pugliese and GE Pierard. They say that cellulite is an interaction of the adipose tissue and connective tissues upon which the sex hormones act. Pugliese goes on to say that fat can be considered a sex organ, just as the skin is considered one. This means the hips and thighs are the most common areas of cellulite production due to how this fat is utilised.

Fat on any part of the body is governed by metabolic or hormonal needs, the latter determines if cellulite appears. The hips and thighs are targeted by hormones in women as these areas are affected by both pregnancy and lactation.

In fact, cellulite is a natural process in females induced by the hormone oestrogen. One of this hormone’s major functions is to breakdown the collagen in the cervix at the time of delivery to allow for the passage of the baby. It is now accepted that women suffer with cellulite due to higher oestrogen levels, while men have little cellulite because they have little oestrogen. It is interesting to note that cellulite is a biological end-product of collagen breakdown and this would logically mean that women with excess cellulite are suffering from excess collagen breakdown. The following diagram demonstrates the complete cellulite process:

There are five very important learning outcomes from this flow chart diagram and the discussion thus far:

1. Oestrogen stimulates the fibroblasts to make collagenase, which acts on collagen
2. Collagen is broken down by the collagenase, kickstarting the cellulite process
3. Without collagen fibre, fat cells escape out of tightly packed groups and move toward the skin surface and enlarge to their full size (hypertrophy).
4. When fat cells reach their full size, they stimulate preadipocytes to develop to form new adipocytes or fat cells.
5. Oestrogen naturally acts on or stimulates the preadipocytes to form new adipocytes and the more fat you have, the more the ovaries are stimulated to produce oestrogen, starting a vicious circle of cellulite-causing processes.

So why then are certain women more affected by cellulite and this vicious circle?
It must be that some women naturally control and regulate their oestrogen levels more so than their cellulite-suffering female counterparts. Lower oestrogen levels lead to lower fibroblast activation and a lower or absent cycle of the above events. There are reports of some women being completely free from cellulite altogether (cellulite is not prevalent in Asian societies, for example)

It’s not surprising cellulite is such a nasty word in the industry; we all know it looks “distasteful”, but now we also know that if you have cellulite, your fat cells have broken free, started to enlarge and then multiply. On top of this you have to factor in that you’re hormonally imbalanced and your collagen levels are low. Unless you do something about it, it’s only going to get worse!

So the question is… how to treat cellulite and which researched methods work? We also show you which dietary regimens and exercise types can more effectively treat cellulite.

How to treat it and reverse cellulite production

By far the best information is how to change your diet to prevent and even reverse cellulite production. Let’s start by looking at what treatment methods have been used and determine their success and finish with diet interventions.

Cellulite Treatments

There are a whole host of studies ranging from topical creams, massage, Xanthines, Botanicals, diet and exercise and heat treatment and, as is always the case, when you have this many different types of ways to treat the same condition, then it’s obvious that there is a lack of understanding on how cellulite develops. All these “cures” have had limited success in their various areas of expertise due to people’s individual cellulite severity and actual method efficacy.

The researchers treating cellulite as a skin condition have had a reasonable success rate on subjects, but their treatments are only temporary at best and would require many repeated visits, making time and cost a big issue. More surprisingly, the research using diet and exercise was not much more successful than those using the aforementioned alternative treatments; in fact, some people’s cellulite worsened with weight loss! Another set of studies have also looked at trying to identify why certain people are more prone to cellulite and thus predict who is most likely to suffer with it, but these studies showed no real success either. In one study, the researchers concluded that cellulite severity was concluded by the percentage of body fat the individual had, as well as the area of the dermal-subcutaneous border. Well, we all know the more fat you have the more likely you will have cellulite produced somewhere, and as for the dermal border, no one without fine scientific instruments can use that information to help themselves against cellulite occurring. To cap it all off, in a recent review of cellulite and its treatment, AV Rawlings in the U.K. concluded that, ‘both oral and topical routes may be the best intervention to ameliorate the signs and symptoms of cellulite’ Oral and topical treatment!

This really is another way of saying – we just don’t know what works best yet! This is because cellulite production is a complex issue involving many different stages and unless you really know and appreciate the cycle of events that I described initially; trying to intervene at the wrong stage of this cycle won’t have a profound effect at all.

Treatment methods

Cellulite treatments are as confusing and varied as the published causes for cellulite, with many therapies billed in the market as helping to reduce cellulite, but are temporary with continued visits at best:

Packs and wraps

The basis of these methods is a mechanical action used to ‘break up’ or ‘burn up’ fat or cellulite. In all honesty, they do neither. These treatments only move a small amount of interstitial water around. This would fulfil a psychological benefit only for the client, as there is no physiology changed.

Herbal Wraps

Wraps that do combine the use of certain herbs have some positive effect. This is due to the skin being semi-permeable and thus able to pull certain nutrients down into the dermis this way Herbs of noted value are – gotu kola, Paraguay tea, coleus forskolii and fennel.

Suction, rolling and pressure devices

This is probably the most dangerous of all cellulite treatments as these mechanical devices can actually make the condition worse by inflicting damage on an already weakened support structure within the skin. Remember, that your collagen levels are low!

Topical herbal treatments

This concept is similar to wraps. For these herbal treatments to be effective they must be formulated properly, so that the active ingredients reach the fatty layer or at least penetrate down to the superficial layer. There is a certain technique involved here because, if not formulated properly, the water soluble ingredients will not penetrate the skin easily. Typical ingredients you find here are caffeine, theophylline, and coleus forscholii. A newer study quoted: yohimbe, aminophylline and isopreterol as they can actually stimulate lipolysis (fat cell break down). This is mainly due to the action of epinephrine or adrenalin acting on adipocytes to release fat into the blood stream from within a cell.

Circulation enhancers and lymphatic drainage

Cellulite severity is increased by interstitial fluid retention or congestion, as its better known. Lymph flow is also shampered with cellulite and as the lymphatic vessels have no muscles with which to pump the fluid and therefore a build up occurs, aggravating the fatty mass and thus the cellulite appearance. Capillary blood flow is also hindered, which accounts for most of the reduced lymph flow, as the former affects the latter, any fluid here depends purely on tissue movement to work. Due to this effect, lymphatic drainage offers a positive effect for the interstitial congestion caused by cellulite. A word of caution, it does not treat cellulite, rather it treats the conditions such as sluggish circulation and increased capillary pressure caused by cellulite.

Xanthines and xanthine derivative

Xanthines are a group of compounds that naturally occur in the body and while they are by-products of tissue breakdown, they have many functions in the body. One of Xanthines main roles is to inhibit an enzyme called ‘phosphodiesterase’ or PDE. When Xanthines inhibit PDE activity, cyclic – AMP (cAMP) can work for a longer duration thereby increasing lypolysis (the break down of fat cells) in that area. Xanthines are also best used away from meal times as the insulin-produced at those times is so powerful at reducing lypolysis and shutting off fat breakdown. Clearly the best times for treatments will be early morning or very late.

Collagenase-blocking agents

This is a much better treatment as it interferes with the cycle of cellulite formation explained earlier. By blocking collagenase, the adipocytes held in tight packs with collagen are maintained, this prevents the fat cells (adipocytes) from escaping and enlarging to their full size and stimulating more fat cell production. This is one of the underlying issues of cellulite – weakened connective tissue. This is quite serious, as any heavy or abrasive movement from objects or even hands, or other people knocking into you can increase tissue damage and aggravate cellulite appearance. The best way to block the effect of collagenase (and elastase) is by the use of bioflavenoids, most notably – proanthocyanidins. These compounds are very expensive but when mixed correctly, about 1-1.5% of proanthocyanidins are necessary to provide an effective blocking agent, only then can you prevent further breakdown of collagen.

Liposuction, Vitamin A and C

Liposuction (as n vacuum suction) is not to be used and can actually make cellulite worse by causing damage to already weak skin structures. For every adipocyte lost in liposuction, you can bet that the damaged weak skin structure that goes with it will only allow many times more adipocytes to be released afterwards. Vitamin A and retinoic acid have a small effect on cellulite, but they don’t cure it, vitamin C is also helpful, as is citric acid, due to their ability to restore collagen, but they don’t stop the cycle!

Phytoestrogens

What are Phytoestrogens? Phytoestrogens, sometimes called “dietary estrogens”, are a diverse group of naturally occurring non steroidal plant compounds that, because of their structural similarity with estradiol (17-β-estradiol), have the ability to cause estrogenic or/and antiestrogenic effects

By far the most exciting dietary research and information involves the use of Phytoestrogens, albeit at slight indirect references. Almost all the research I will quote determines how effective Phytoestrogens are at controlling estrogen levels. Oestrogen, as we now know, is responsible for a complete cycle of events as it plays the most dominant role in cellulite development. Thus, it stands to reason, if you control oestrogen levels, then you can control cellulite production.

To further support this hypothesis, it has been noted that Asian populations, who consume the most phytoestrogens, have the least amount of cellulite. As a result of their high consumptions of phytoestrogens (50 – 300 milligrams), there have been many studies to determine the impact of phytoestrogens on health. Asians consuming 100 grams of soybean a day were getting isoflavone protection in the form of daidzein and genistein.
Compared to Westerners, scientists found that Asians had a lower rate of breast, uterine and endometrial cancer, a lower rate of prostatic and colon cancer; as well as a lower rate of cardiovascular disease. Research goes on to state that ‘when Asians switched to western-style diets – high in fat and protein and low in fibre and soy – their risk for hormonally related diseases increased.’

It is interesting to note that the chemical structure of oestrogen and isoflavones, one of two types of Phytoestrogens, are so similar that physiological actions occur when they are absorbed by the body. Phytoestrogens are more common than you realise, as they are members of a class of bioflavonoids, a more familiar term in today’s vernacular; under bioflavonoids they are known under two distinct groups – isoflavones and lignans.

To further support the benefit of consuming Phytoestrogens, soy beans have been shown to be effective in reducing rapid cell growth and reducing acne in research studies. This research is mainly based on soy products, which specifically contains isoflavones – genistein and daidzein and Peter Pugilese actually states in his book ‘Physiology of the skin II’ that, ‘cellulite should respond to isoflavones since they block the effect of oestrogens on the connective tissue surrounding the fatty tissue…By blocking this action, isoflavones will reduce, or prevent the tendency of the fatty tissue to be herniated into the dermis.’

So clearly, reducing estrogen levels will by far have the most dramatic effect on reducing and potentially reversing cellulite production. At this point in time, however, there is unfortunately no peer-research confirming this result, as phytoestrogen and cellulite research have been conducted separately, but other researchers are certainly looking into the connection, and will hopefully reach the same conclusion.

Oestrogen blocking foods
Arugula, Bok choy, Broccoli, Brussels sprouts, Cabbage, Cauliflower, Chard, Chinese cabbage, Collard greens, Daikon, Kale, Kohlrabi, Mustard greens, Radishes, Rutabagas, Turnips, Watercress

Strength training elicits more testosterone production, so performing more weight type workouts instead of cardio, could also be another way for women to counteract the oestrogen levels and thus the cellulite reaction in their bodies.

New research also tells us that the effects of oestrogen are inheritable as your parent’s oestrogen intake via dairy-based products has left cellular adaptations described as genetic imprints. This research has pointed out that these imprints may leave the individual more sensitive to oestrogen intake in the future – perhaps this is the case with cellulite too?

In closing, I will jump to a conclusion and state that the latest research will show that Asian/Mongolian populations of women with none or little cellulite, either consume very little dairy combined with a high pyhtoestrogen intake or they have modified fibroblasts that are desensitized to the effects of oestrogen (perhaps from a high intake of Phytoestrogens?). We shall just have to wait and see…